The following is based on a combination of AI trawls (from three different AI models) from ‘public-facing’ information on the internet. It may contain inaccuracies or particular biases depending on the information available, which it aggregates with no judgement made as to the relative merits of each article – although I have checked through it to try to eliminate inaccuracies where I have found them. As such it is a starting point for information and discussion rather than a finished ‘journal-ready’ article.

The ‘Concluding Thoughts’ section however is all my own personal opinion and is not AI generated.

Introduction

Primary school years are a period of rapid cognitive, physical, and emotional development. Children refine executive function, working memory, processing speed, and motor skills while also learning to manage cognitive load in increasingly complex learning environments. Understanding how these develop and interact helps teachers create supportive, effective classrooms.

Executive Function

Executive function is a set of higher-order mental processes that enable purposeful, goal‑directed behaviour. It includes:

• Working memory – holding and manipulating information
• Inhibitory control – resisting impulses and distractions
• Cognitive flexibility – shifting between tasks or perspectives

During the primary years, children show major improvements in planning, organisation, emotional regulation, and task initiation. Difficulties may appear as forgetfulness, impulsivity, or trouble coping with transitions.

Working Memory

Working memory is the brain’s “mental workspace”, allowing individuals to hold and manipulate small amounts of information for brief periods. It is distinct from short‑term memory: while short‑term memory stores information passively, working memory actively processes it.

The Baddeley & Hitch model suggests that it includes:

• Central Executive – directs attention and coordinates the system
• Phonological Loop – handles verbal and auditory information
• Visuospatial Sketchpad – manages visual and spatial information
• Episodic Buffer – integrates information and links it to long‑term memory capacity limits

Research suggests that most adults can only hold about 3 to 5 ‘chunks’ of information at once before the system becomes overloaded.

For children, capacity is lower:

• Ages 5–7: typically 1–2 chunks
• Ages 7–9: typically 2–3 chunks
• Ages 9–11: approaching 3–4 chunks

Time Limits of Working Memory

Working memory is also limited in duration. Without rehearsal, information typically fades within:

• 10–15 seconds for young children
• 15–20 seconds for older primary pupils
• 20–30 seconds for adults

This means that if a child does not repeat, rehearse, or act on information quickly, it disappears before they can use it.

Processing Speed

Processing speed refers to how quickly a child can take in information, understand it, and respond. It affects reading fluency, writing, maths, and classroom participation.

Children with slow processing speed may:

• take longer to begin or complete tasks
• struggle with timed activities
• appear dreamy or disengaged
• find fast-paced lessons overwhelming

Processing speed improves steadily through childhood but varies widely between individuals.

Interaction of Working Memory with Processing Speed

Because processing speed determines how quickly a child can take in and begin acting on information;

• Slow processing means the working‑memory timer starts before the child has fully understood the instruction.
• By the time they begin the task, part of the instruction may already have decayed.

Combined slow processing speed + short working‑memory duration = high risk of forgetting multi‑step instructions.

Motor Skills

Motor skills involve muscle movements and are divided into:

• Gross motor skills – large movements (running, jumping, balancing)
• Fine motor skills – precise movements (writing, cutting, tying shoelaces)

Development in Primary School

• Ages 5–7: mastery of basic locomotor skills; improved pencil grip
• Ages 8–9: increased coordination and endurance
• Ages 10–11: refined dexterity; readiness for complex sports, music, and detailed writing

Motor skill development is influenced by physical growth, brain maturation, and practice.

Interaction of Working Memory with Motor Skills

Motor tasks slow down how quickly a child can act on information, increasing the chance that working‑memory contents decay.

• Fine motor tasks (writing, cutting, drawing) take longer for younger children, reducing the time available to hold instructions.
• Gross motor transitions (moving around the classroom) often exceed the 10–15 second memory window.
• Children with motor coordination difficulties take longer to complete actions, meaning instructions often fade before they can act.

Cognitive Load

Cognitive load refers to the amount of mental effort required to process information. It is closely tied to working‑memory capacity.

Types of Cognitive Load

Intrinsic Cognitive Load

The inherent difficulty of the material itself. Influenced by:

• number of elements
• complexity
• prior knowledge

Extraneous Cognitive Load

Unnecessary mental effort caused by poor instructional design. Examples include:

• long verbal instructions
• cluttered worksheets
• copying from the board while listening

Germane Cognitive Load

Effort devoted to forming new schemas and making sense of information. Teachers can help children develop their ability to deal with germane load effectively by:

• encouraging them to explain their thinking
• using worked examples
• prompting connections between ideas

How These Domains Interact

These systems are deeply interconnected:

• Executive function depends on working memory and processing speed.
• Slow processing speed increases cognitive load.
• Weak working memory reduces capacity to manage intrinsic and extraneous load.
• Motor skills influence academic tasks such as handwriting and tool use, and hence impact on both working memory and cognitive load.
• High cognitive load can overwhelm children, reducing executive function and emotional regulation.

A child with slow processing speed and weak fine motor skills may struggle to write quickly enough to keep up, increasing extraneous load and reducing working memory available for learning.

Implications for Teachers

Teachers should be aware that:

• Difficulties in executive function, working memory, or processing speed are developmental, not behavioural.
• Reducing extraneous cognitive load supports all learners.
• Visual supports, chunked instructions, and predictable routines reduce cognitive strain.
• Motor skill development underpins handwriting, tool use, and participation in PE.
• Early identification and support prevent long-term academic and emotional challenges.

References (Apa 7th Edition)

Assemble You. (n.d.). Assemble You. https://www.assembleyou.com

Aday in Our Shoes. (n.d.). A Day in Our Shoes. https://adayinourshoes.com

Baddeley, A., & Hitch, G. (Referenced in document). Working memory model. (Original works not provided; summary based on secondary sources.)

Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org

Child Mind Institute. (n.d.). Child Mind Institute. https://childmind.org

CHSS eLearning. (n.d.). CHSS eLearning. https://www.chsselearning.org.uk (chsselearning.org.uk in Bing)

CNE Cambridge. (n.d.). Cambridge Neuroscience. https://www.cne.psychol.cam.ac.uk (cne.psychol.cam.ac.uk in Bing)

CPA Canada. (n.d.). Canadian Psychological Association. https://cpa.ca

Decision Lab. (n.d.). The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com

Dyslexia UK. (n.d.). Dyslexia UK. https://www.dyslexiauk.co.uk

EdResearch. (n.d.). Australian Education Research Organisation. https://www.edresearch.edu.au

Edutopia. (n.d.). Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org

Education NI. (n.d.). Department of Education Northern Ireland. https://www.education-ni.gov.uk (education-ni.gov.uk in Bing)

Essex SEND Support. (n.d.). Parent SEND Support Essex. https://parent-send-support.essex.gov.uk (parent-send-support.essex.gov.uk in Bing)

Get Lab Test. (n.d.). Get Lab Test. https://www.getlabtest.com

Healthline. (n.d.). Healthline. https://www.healthline.com

Hydrocephalus Scotland. (n.d.). Hydrocephalus Scotland. https://www.hydrocephalusscotland.org.uk(hydrocephalusscotland.org.uk in Bing)

Learnfully. (n.d.). Learnfully. https://learnfully.com

Learning Scientists. (n.d.). The Learning Scientists. https://www.learningscientists.org

Leicestershire Partnership NHS Trust. (n.d.). Leicspart NHS. https://www.leicspart.nhs.uk

Lifeskills Advocate. (n.d.). Lifeskills Advocate. https://lifeskillsadvocate.com

Lotus Psychology Practice. (n.d.). The Lotus Psychology Practice. https://www.thelotuspsychologypractice.co.uk(thelotuspsychologypractice.co.uk in Bing)

Maths No Problem. (n.d.). Maths — No Problem!. https://mathsnoproblem.com

MCW. (n.d.). Medical College of Wisconsin. https://www.mcw.edu

Mind Company. (n.d.). The Mind Company. https://themindcompany.com

Mytutor. (n.d.). MyTutor. https://www.mytutor.co.uk

Nelft NHS. (n.d.). North East London NHS Foundation Trust. https://www.nelft.nhs.uk

NeuronUP. (n.d.). NeuronUP. https://neuronup.us

Nottinghamshire Healthcare NHS. (n.d.). Nottinghamshire Healthcare NHS. https://www.nottinghamshirehealthcare.nhs.uk (nottinghamshirehealthcare.nhs.uk in Bing)

Potential Plus UK. (n.d.). Potential Plus UK. https://potentialplusuk.org

PMC. (n.d.). PubMed Central. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov in Bing)

Psychology Today. (n.d.). Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com

PsychStory. (n.d.). PsychStory. https://www.psychstory.co.uk

Save My Exams. (n.d.). Save My Exams. https://www.savemyexams.com

SEND EA Northern Ireland. (n.d.). Education Authority SEND. https://send.eani.org.uk (send.eani.org.uk in Bing)

Talmamo. (n.d.). Talamo. https://www.talamo.co.uk

TES. (n.d.). TES. https://www.tes.com

The Childhood Collective. (n.d.). The Childhood Collective. https://thechildhoodcollective.com

The Decision Lab. (n.d.). The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com

Thematic Education. (n.d.). Themantic Education. https://www.themantic-education.com

Third Space Learning. (n.d.). Third Space Learning. https://thirdspacelearning.com

Twinkl. (n.d.). Twinkl. https://www.twinkl.co.uk

Understood.org. (n.d.). Understood. https://www.understood.org

Vanguard Gifted Academy. (n.d.). Vanguard Gifted Academy. https://vanguardgiftedacademy.org

White Rose Education. (n.d.). White Rose Education. https://whiteroseeducation.com

WSFC. (n.d.). Worcester Sixth Form College. https://www.wsfc.ac.uk

Some Concluding Thoughts 

The following represent my own opinions, not necessarily those of the school at which I currently work.

I thought about including research into motivation in this section as it plays such a big role in acquiring new learning, but decided to include that in the upcoming article about growth mindset instead.

I’m also aware that I haven’t covered Executive Function very much – I will address this gap in a future post.

When considering the models proposed for the different areas covered in this article, it is always worth remembering that these are just theories – albeit well-researched ones – rather than a blueprint taken from the ‘Human Being Instruction Manual (Revised Edition)’. Future studies may lead to them being refined or even rejected, and so it is best to avoid becoming too wedded to them.

That said, at present they are the most useful ways of informing teaching practice to help explain difficulties that children encounter in their learning (and everyday lives) and hence find ways to address or circumvent them. You may think that everyone involved in education would have detailed knowledge about these, whether they agree with them or not. Sadly it often seems to me that those in charge of setting up the curriculum and ‘quality control’ give scant regard to them beyond lip service – they know and use the buzzwords but this doesn’t translate to their actions when they are designing and checking what is taught in schools.

Given that these are the fundamental building blocks for learning, I find it bizarre that the school curriculum is not specifically designed to develop these, especially in the first few years of primary school. These vital aspects seem to be assumed to develop simply as part of ‘growing up’, and as such are expected to improve almost magically as subject knowledge is taught, rather than using subject matter to develop them. To be fair, that tends to be how things work out for a significant portion of the school population, but not for all, and surely we are trying to educate all, not just those who ‘fit’ our current system. Out of the four areas discussed above, only motor skills gets any time specifically devoted to formal tuition, most commonly through PE and handwriting lessons. But even this seems aimed at producing neat writers rather than developing all round strength, stamina and dexterity.

The problem as I see it is that we have an education system based on an academic model that predates the current insights into child development coupled with an inertia that borders on the criminally negligent when it comes to updating it. Even the recent Curriculum and Assessment Review offers little hope of real progress in this area. As I alluded to in my earlier post about the battle for the soul of education, too many vested interests prevent the bold changes needed. It would seem that the gravitational pull of ‘tradition’ – as set out in such treaties as ‘Tom Brown’s Schooldays’ and ‘Goodbye Mr Chips’ – is far more powerful than the influence of such ‘airy-fairy’ lightweights as scientific research. The irony of the huge STEM subject push by the same people resisting real change to the overall education system is not lost on me…

Not convinced? Let’s look at one small but almost universal practice that tradition dictates children are required to do, sometimes on several occasions in the same day: date and title. “Open your book at the next clean page and copy the date and L.O./‘I can’/(insert whatever your school calls it here) from the board,” is an instruction that will be heard at some point during most lessons. Why? In primary schools, children are not using their books as reference materials (unless they’re unlucky enough to be in a school that has a ‘pub quiz’ approach to learning), so this is basically an exercise in signalling to an inspector that regular learning takes place and what each lesson is about. This is not contributing to the child’s own learning in any way – and don’t pretend that it ‘helps them learn to take pride in their presentation of their work’. To children who are neat writers it will reinforce their self esteem, but to those who struggle in any way with their written work, it is a completely unnecessary distraction from their learning, whilst having the added ‘bonus’ of nibbling away at their self confidence and positively devouring their learning time. This can’t even be excused as helping them develop their presentation skills. If that is the point, make it a handwriting lesson! But, despite its complete absence of any meaningful contribution to children’s learning, it is still insisted upon, day in, day out. “It helps children learn to spell the days of the week and months of the year,” I hear you say. Is that the case? Well Saturday, Sunday and August would like a quiet word with you.

This curiously ‘tunnel vision’ view of education as overwhelmingly academic learning also makes addressing difficulties in these fundamental areas problematic. Teachers are often reminded by misguided OFSTED preparation professionals that they have a ‘legal obligation’ to teach children, no matter what their presenting needs are, the national curriculum content ‘as set out in the schools schemes of work on the school website’ – as though being able to regurgitate facts about an eighteenth century explorer in Year 2 is more beneficial than developing their strategies to make best use of their working memory. I always thought that the curriculum was meant to serve the needs of the children, not the other way around. How did I get it so wrong?

The issue of how cognitive development is affected by the interaction of working memory, processing speed and motor skills is one that I will return to in a future post, but in the meantime, you may be interested in a little article I wrote entitled ‘To Write The Word IT’. I will post it next and would recommend anyone who has children in their class who really struggle with handwriting read it. I tried to shine a light on exactly what is being asked of a child in order to better understand why they found it so difficult to make improvements – let me know what you think in the comments.

The good news is that all this could be addressed with tweaks to school practice rather than wholesale changes, especially with the use of AI to find and suggest ways of adapting lessons. Provided teachers are given the time and the tools to support their planning, it is possible for them to integrate activities to support children with working memory, processing speed and motor skills issues. This would have to be accompanied by an acceptance by the ‘powers-that-be’ that less might be recorded in books. Indeed, less content might well be covered by those needing these extra strategies in place, but the longer term gains for these pupils would likely far outweigh the short term pain (to teachers’ data!) of this ‘content dip’! After all, it is the children’s needs that are the most important part of this, surely?

Mike

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